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Vehicle insurance (also known as auto insurance, car insurance, or motor insurance) is insurance purchased for cars, trucks, and other vehicles. Its primary use is to provide protection against losses incurred as a result of traffic accidents and against liability that could be incurred in an accident.

Public policy
In many jurisdictions it is compulsory to have vehicle insurance before using or keeping a motor vehicle on public roads. Most jurisdictions relate insurance to both the car and the driver, however the degree of each varies greatly.

A 1994 study by Jeremy Jackson and Roger Blackman[1] showed, consistent with the risk homeostasis theory, that increased accident costs caused large and significant reductions in accident frequencies.

 Australia
In South Australia, Third Party Personal insurance from the Motor Accident Commission is included in the licence registration fee for people over 16. A similar scheme applies in Western Australia.

In Victoria, Third Party Personal insurance from the Transport Accident Commission is similarly included, through a levy, in the vehicle registration fee.

In New South Wales, Compulsory Third Party Insurance (commonly known as CTP Insurance) is a mandatory requirement and each individual car must be insured or the vehicle will not be considered legal. Therefore, a motorist cannot drive the vehicle until it is insured. A ‘Green Slip,’[citation needed] another name CTP Insurance is commonly known by due to the colour of the pages the form is printed on, must be obtained through one of the seven main insurers in New South Wales.

In Queensland, CTP is a mandatory part of registration for a vehicle. There is choice of insurer but price is government controlled in a tight band.

These state based third party insurance schemes usually cover only personal injury liability. Comprehensive vehicle insurance is sold separately to cover property damage and cover can be for events such as fire, theft, collision and other property damage.

 Canada
Several Canadian provinces (British Columbia, Saskatchewan, Manitoba and Quebec) provide a public auto insurance system while in the rest of the country insurance is provided privately. Basic auto insurance is mandatory throughout Canada with each province’s government determining which benefits are included as minimum required auto insurance coverage and which benefits are options available for those seeking additional coverage. Accident benefits coverage is mandatory everywhere except for Newfoundland and Labrador. All provinces in Canada have some form of no-fault insurance available to accident victims. The difference from province to province is the extent to which tort or no-fault is emphasized.[2] Typically, coverage against loss of or damage to the driver’s own vehicle is optional – one notable exception to this is in Saskatchewan, where SGI provides collision coverage (less than a $700 deductible, such as a collision damage waiver) as part of its basic insurance policy. In Saskatchewan, residents have the option to have their auto insurance through a tort system but less than 0.5% of the population have taken this option.[2]

 Hungary
Third-party vehicle insurance is mandatory for all vehicles in Hungary. No exemption is possible by money deposit. The premium covers all damage up to HUF 500M (about €1.8M) per accident without deductible. The coverage is extended to HUF 500M (about €4.5M) in case of personal injuries. Vehicle insurance policies from all EU-countries and some non-EU countries are valid in Hungary based on bilateral or multilateral agreements. Visitors with vehicle insurance not covered by such agreements are required to buy a monthly, renewable policy at the border.[3]

 Ireland
The Road Traffic Act, 1933 requires all drivers of mechanically propelled vehicles in public places to have at least third-party insurance, or to have obtained exemption – generally by depositing a (large) sum of money with the High Court as a guarantee against claims. In 1933 this figure was set at £15,000. The Road Traffic Act, 1961 [1] (which is currently in force) repealed the 1933 act but replaced these sections with functionally identical sections.

From 1968, those making deposits require the consent of the Minister for Transport to do so, with the sum specified by the Minister.

Those not exempted from obtaining insurance must obtain a certificate of insurance from their insurance provider, and display a portion of this (an insurance disc) on their vehicles windscreen (if fitted). The certificate in full must be presented to a police station within ten days if requested by an officer. Proof of having insurance or an exemption must also be provided to pay for your motor tax.

Those injured or suffering property damage/loss due to uninsured drivers can claim against the Motor Insurance Bureau of Ireland’s uninsured drivers fund, as can those injured (but not those suffering damage or loss) from hit and run offences.

 Romania
Romanian law mandates R?spundere Auto Civil?, a motor-vehicle liability insurance for all vehicle owners to cover damages to third parties.[4]

 South Africa
South Africa allocates a percentage of the money from gasoline into the Road Accidents Fund, which goes towards compensating third parties in accidents.[5]

 United Kingdom
In 1930, the UK government introduced a law that required every person who used a vehicle on the road to have at least third party personal injury insurance. Today UK law is defined by the Road Traffic Act 1988, which was last modified in 1991. The Act requires that motorists either be insured, have a security, or have made a specified deposit (£500,000 as of 1991) with the Accountant General of the Supreme Court, against their liability for injuries to others (including passengers) and for damage to other persons’ property resulting from use of a vehicle on a public road or in other public places.

The minimum level of insurance cover commonly available and which satisfies the requirement of the Act is called third party only insurance. The level of cover provided by Third party only insurance is basic but does exceed the requirements of the act.

Road Traffic Act Only Insurance is not the same as Third Party Only Insurance and is not often sold. It provides the very minimum cover to satisfy the requirements of the Act. For example Road Traffic Act Only Insurance has a limit of £1,000,000 for damage to third party property – third party only insurance typically has a greater limit for third party property damage.

It is an offence to drive a car, or allow others to drive it, without at least third party insurance whilst on the public highway (or public place Section 143(1)(a) RTA 1988 as amended 1991); however, no such legislation applies on private land.

Vehicles which are exempted by the act, from the requirement to be covered, include those owned by certain councils and local authorities, national park authorities, education authorities, police authorities, fire authorities, health service bodies and security services.

The insurance certificate or cover note issued by the insurance company constitutes legal evidence that the vehicle specified on the document is insured. The law says that an authorised person, such as the police, may require a driver to produce an insurance certificate for inspection. If the driver cannot show the document immediately on request, then the driver will usually be issued a HORT/1 with seven days, as of midnight of the date of issue, to take a valid insurance certificate (and usually other driving documents as well) to a police station of the driver’s choice. Failure to produce an insurance certificate is an offence. The HORT/1 is commonly known – even by the issuing authorities when dealing with the public – as a “Producer”.

Insurance is more expensive in Northern Ireland than in other parts of the UK.[vague][citation needed]

Most motorists in the UK are required to prominently display a vehicle licence (tax disc) on their vehicle when it is kept or driven on public roads. This helps to ensure that most people have adequate insurance on their vehicles because an insurance certificate must be produced when a disc is purchased[citation needed].

The Motor Insurers Bureau compensates the victims of road accidents caused by uninsured and untraced motorists. It also operates the Motor Insurance Database, which contains details of every insured vehicle in the country.

 United States
In the United States, auto insurance covering liability for injuries and property damage done to others is compulsory in most states, though enforcement of the requirement varies from state to state. The state of New Hampshire, for example, does not require motorists to carry liability insurance (the ballpark model), while in Virginia residents must pay the state a $500 annual fee per vehicle if they choose not to buy liability insurance.[6] Penalties for not purchasing auto insurance vary by state, but often involve a substantial fine, license and/or registration suspension or revocation, as well as possible jail time in some states. Usually, the minimum required by law is third party insurance to protect third parties against the financial consequences of loss, damage or injury caused by a vehicle.

Some states, such as North Carolina, require that a driver hold liability insurance before a license can be issued.

Arizona Department of Transportation Research Project Manager John Semmens has recommended that car insurers issue license plates, and that they be held responsible for the full cost of injuries and property damages caused by their licensees under the Disneyland model. Plates would expire at the end of the insurance coverage period, and licensees would need to return their plates to their insurance office to receive a refund on their premiums. Vehicles driving without insurance would thus be easy to spot because they would not have license plates, or the plates would be past the marked expiration date.[7]

 Coverage levels
Vehicle insurance can cover some or all of the following items:

The insured party
The insured vehicle
Third parties (car and people)
Third party, fire and theft
In some jurisdictions coverage for injuries to persons riding in the insured vehicle is available without regard to fault in the auto accident (No Fault Auto Insurance)
Different policies specify the circumstances under which each item is covered. For example, a vehicle can be insured against theft, fire damage, or accident damage independently.

 Excess
An excess payment, also known as a deductible, is the fixed contribution you must pay each time your car is repaired through your car insurance policy. Normally the payment is made directly to the accident repair “garage” (The term “garage” refers to an establishment where vehicles are serviced and repaired) when you collect the car. If one’s car is declared to be a “write off” or “total loss”(”write off” is commonly used in motor insurance to describe a vehicle the worth of which is less than the cost of repair), the insurance company will deduct the excess agreed on the policy from the settlement payment it makes to you.

If the accident was the other driver’s fault, and this is accepted by the third party’s insurer, you’ll be able to reclaim your excess payment from the other person’s insurance company.

 Compulsory excess
A compulsory excess is the minimum excess payment your insurer will accept on your insurance policy. Minimum excesses vary according to your personal details, driving record and insurance company.

 Voluntary excess
In order to reduce your insurance premium, you may offer to pay a higher excess than the compulsory excess demanded by your insurance company. Your voluntary excess is the extra amount over and above the compulsory excess that you agree to pay in the event of a claim on the policy. As a bigger excess reduces the financial risk carried by your insurer, your insurer is able to offer you a significantly lower premium.

 Basis of premium charges
Main article: auto insurance risk selection
Depending on the jurisdiction, the insurance premium can be either mandated by the government or determined by the insurance company in accordance to a framework of regulations set by the government. Often, the insurer will have more freedom to set the price on physical damage coverages than on mandatory liability coverages.

When the premium is not mandated by the government, it is usually derived from the calculations of an actuary based on statistical data. The premium can vary depending on many factors that are believed to have an impact on the expected cost of future claims.[8] Those factors can include the car characteristics, the coverage selected (deductible, limit, covered perils), the profile of the driver (age, gender, driving history) and the usage of the car (commute to work or not, predicted annual distance driven).[9]

 Gender
Men average more miles driven per year than women do, and consequently have a proportionally higher accident involvement at all ages. Insurance companies cite women’s lower accident involvement in keeping the youth surcharge lower for young women drivers than for their male counterparts, but adult rates are generally unisex. Reference to the lower rate for young women as “the women’s discount” has caused confusion that was evident in news reports on a recently defeated EC proposal to make it illegal to consider gender in assessing insurance premiums.[10] Ending the discount would have made no difference to most women’s premiums.[citation needed]

 Age
Teenage drivers who have no driving record will have higher car insurance premiums. However, young drivers are often offered discounts if they undertake further driver training on recognised courses, such as the Pass Plus scheme in the UK. In the U.S. many insurers offer a good grade discount to students with a good academic record and resident student discounts to those who live away from home. Generally insurance premiums tend to become lower at the age of 25. Senior drivers are often eligible for retirement discounts reflecting lower average miles driven by this age group.

 Marital status
Drivers who are unmarried are often charged higher insurance premiums as opposed to married drivers.

 Vehicle classification
Owners of sports cars, muscle cars, some sport utility vehicles, and motorcycles would have higher insurance premiums as opposed to compact cars, midsized cars, or luxury cars. However, in the case of motorcycles, the chance of causing extensive damage to other vehicles is relatively low (as opposed to damage to oneself) and thus liability insurance premiums are often lower.

 Distance
Some car insurance plans do not differentiate in regard to how much the car is used. However, methods of differentiation would include:

 Reasonable estimation
Several car insurance plans rely on a reasonable estimation of the average annual distance expected to be driven which is provided by the insured. This discount benefits drivers who drive their cars infrequently but has no actuarial value since it is unverified.

 Odometer-based systems
Cents Per Mile Now[11](1986) advocates classified odometer-mile rates. After the company’s risk factors have been applied and the customer has accepted the per-mile rate offered, customers buy prepaid miles of insurance protection as needed, like buying gallons of gasoline. Insurance automatically ends when the odometer limit (recorded on the car’s insurance ID card) is reached unless more miles are bought. Customers keep track of miles on their own odometer to know when to buy more. The company does no after-the-fact billing of the customer, and the customer doesn’t have to estimate a “future annual mileage” figure for the company to obtain a discount. In the event of a traffic stop, an officer could easily verify that the insurance is current by comparing the figure on the insurance card to that on the odometer.

Critics point out the possibility of cheating the system by odometer tampering. Although the newer electronic odometers are difficult to roll back, they can still be defeated by disconnecting the odometer wires and reconnecting them later. However, as the Cents Per Mile Now website points out:

As a practical matter, resetting odometers requires equipment plus expertise that makes stealing insurance risky and uneconomical. For example, in order to steal 20,000 miles (32,000 km) of continuous protection while paying for only the 2,000 miles (3,200 km) from 35,000 miles (56,000 km) to 37,000 miles (60,000 km) on the odometer, the resetting would have to be done at least nine times to keep the odometer reading within the narrow 2,000-mile (3,200 km) covered range. There are also powerful legal deterrents to this way of stealing insurance protection. Odometers have always served as the measuring device for resale value, rental and leasing charges, warranty limits, mechanical breakdown insurance, and cents-per-mile tax deductions or reimbursements for business or government travel. Odometer tampering—detected during claim processing—voids the insurance and, under decades-old state and federal law, is punishable by heavy fines and jail.

Under the cents-per-mile system, rewards for driving less are delivered automatically without need for administratively cumbersome and costly GPS technology. Uniform per-mile exposure measurement for the first time provides the basis for statistically valid rate classes. Insurer premium income automatically keeps pace with increases or decreases in driving activity, cutting back on resulting insurer demand for rate increases and preventing today’s windfalls to insurers when decreased driving activity lowers costs but not premiums.

 GPS-based system
In 1998, Progressive Insurance started a pilot program in Texas in which drivers received a discount for installing a GPS-based device that tracked their driving behavior and reported the results via cellular phone to the company.[12] Policyholders were reportedly more upset about having to pay for the expensive device than they were over privacy concerns.[13] The program was discontinued in 2000.

 OBDII-based system
In 2008, The Progressive Corporation launched MyRate to give drivers a customized insurance rate based on how, how much, and when their car is driven. MyRate is currently available in Alabama, Kentucky, Louisiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Maryland, New Jersey and Oregon. Driving data is transmitted to the company using an on-board telematic device. The device connects to a car’s OnBoard Diagnostic (OBD-II) port (all automobiles built after 1996 have an OBD-II.) and transmits speed, time of day and number of miles the car is driven. There is no GPS in the MyRate device, so no location information is collected. Cars that are driven less often, in less risky ways and at less risky times of day can receive large discounts. Progressive has received patents on its methods and systems of implementing usage-based insurance and has licensed these methods and systems to other companies. Progressive has service marks pending on the terms Pay As You Drive and Pay How You Drive.

 Auto insurance in the United States
 Coverage available
The consumer may be protected with different coverage types depending on what coverage the insured purchases. Some states require that motorists carry liability insurance coverage to ensure that their drivers can cover the cost of damages to people or property in the event of an automobile accident. Some states, such as Wisconsin, have more flexible “proof of financial responsibility” requirements.[14]

In the United States, liability insurance covers claims against the policy holder and generally, any other operator of the insured vehicles, provided they do not live at the same address as the policy holder, and are not specifically excluded on the policy. In the case of those living at the same address, they must specifically be covered on the policy. Thus it is necessary, for example, when a family member comes of driving age they must be added to the policy. Liability insurance sometimes does not protect the policy holder if they operate any vehicles other than their own. When you drive a vehicle owned by another party, you are covered under that party’s policy. Non-owners policies may be offered that would cover an insured on any vehicle they drive. This coverage is available only to those who do not own their own vehicle and is sometimes required by the government for drivers who have previously been found at fault in an accident. Non-owners policies are also known as Named Operator Policies. The policies are useful for people whose drivers license has been suspended and they have to have insurance for their license to be reinstated.

Generally, liability coverage extends when you rent a car. Comprehensive policies (”full coverage”) usually also apply to the rental vehicle, although this should be verified beforehand. Full coverage premiums are based on, among other factors, the value of the insured’s vehicle. This coverage, however, cannot apply to rental cars because the insurance company does not want to assume responsibility for a claim greater than the value of the insured’s vehicle, assuming that a rental car may be worth more than the insured’s vehicle. Most rental car companies offer insurance to cover damage to the rental vehicle. These policies may be unnecessary for many customers as credit card companies, such as Visa and MasterCard, now provide supplemental collision damage coverage to rental cars if the transaction is processed using one of their cards. These benefits are restrictive in terms of the types of vehicles covered.[15]

 Liability
Liability coverage is offered for bodily injury (BI) or property damage (PD) for which the insured driver is deemed responsible. The amount of coverage provided (a fixed dollar amount) will vary from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. Whatever the minimum, the insured can usually increase the coverage (prior to a loss) for an additional charge.

An example of Property Damage is where an insured driver (or 1st party) drives into a telephone pole and damages the pole, liability coverage pays for the damage to the pole. In this example, the drivers insured may also become liable for other expenses related to damaging the telephone pole, such as loss of service claims (by the telephone company), depending on the jurisdiction. An example of Bodily Injury is where an insured driver causes bodily harm to a third party and the insured driver is deemed responsible for the injuries. However, in some jurisdictions, the third party would first exhaust coverage for accident benefits through their own insurer (assuming they have one) and/or would have to meet a legal definition of severe impairment to have the right to claim (or sue) under the insured driver’s (or 1st Party’s) policy.

In some jurisdictions: Liability coverage is available either as a combined single limit policy, or as a split limit policy:

 Combined single limit
A combined single limit combines property damage liability coverage and bodily injury coverage under one single combined limit. For example, an insured driver with a combine single liability limit strikes another vehicle and injures the driver and the passenger. Payments for the damages to the other driver’s car, as well as payments for injury claims for the driver and passenger, would be paid out under this same coverage.

 Split limits
A split limit liability coverage policy splits the coverages into property damage coverage and bodily injury coverage. In the example given above, payments for the other driver’s vehicle would be paid out under property damage coverage, and payments for the injuries would be paid out under bodily injury coverage.

Bodily injury liability coverage is also usually split as well into a maximum payment per person and a maximum payment per accident.

In the state of Oklahoma, you must carry at least state minimum liability limits of $25,000/50,000/25,000. If an insured driver hits a car full of people and is found by the insurance company to be liable, the insurance company will pay $25,000 of one persons medical bills but will not exceed 50,000 for other people injured in the accident. The insurance company will pay property damage not to exceed 25,000 in repairs to the vehicle that the insured hit.

In the state of Indiana, the minimum liability limits are $25,000/$50,000/$10,000 so, there is a greater property damage exposure for only carrying the minimum limits.

 Full coverage
Full coverage is the name commonly referred to as Comprehensive and Collision. Insurers generally do not use this term because it implies broader coverage than actually exists.

 Collision
Collision coverage provides coverage for an insured’s vehicle that is involved in an accident, subject to a deductible. This coverage is designed to provide payments to repair the damaged vehicle, or payment of the cash value of the vehicle if it is not repairable. Collision coverage is optional, however if you plan on financing a car or taking a car loan, the lender will usually insist you carry collision for the finance term or until your car is paid off. Collision Damage Waiver (CDW) or Loss Damage Waiver (LDW) is the term used by rental car companies for collision coverage.

 Comprehensive
Comprehensive (a.k.a. – Other Than Collision) coverage provides coverage, subject to a deductible, for an insured’s vehicle that is damaged by incidents that are not considered Collisions. For example, fire, theft (or attempted theft), vandalism, weather, or impacts with animals are types of Comprehensive losses.

 Uninsured/underinsured Motorist coverage
Underinsured coverage, also known as UM/UIM, provides coverage if an at-fault party either does not have insurance, or does not have enough insurance. In effect, your insurance company pays your medical bills, then would subrogate from the at fault party. This coverage is often over looked and very important. In Colorado for example, it was estimated in 2007 that 24% of drivers did not carry the state minimum liability limits required by law. That is about 1 out of every 4 drivers. Unfortunately, this number goes up significantly during recessions. In some area’s it is estimated that 1 out of every 3 drivers don;t carry insurance. Usually your limits match your liability limits. Some insurance companies do offer um/uim in an umbrella policy.

In the United States, the definition of an uninsured/underinsured motorist, and corresponding coverages, are set by state laws.

 Loss of use
Loss of use coverage, also known as rental coverage, provides reimbursement for rental expenses associated with having an insured vehicle repaired due to a covered loss.

 Loan/lease payoff
Loan/lease payoff coverage, also known as GAP coverage or GAP insurance,[16][17] was established in the early 1980s to provide protection to consumers based upon buying and market trends.

Due to the sharp decline in value immediately following purchase, there is generally a period in which the amount owed on the car loan exceeds the value of the vehicle, which is called “upside-down” or negative equity. Thus, if the vehicle is damaged beyond economical repair at this point, the owner will still owe potentially thousands of dollars on the loan. The escalating price of cars, longer-term auto loans, and the increasing popularity of leasing gave birth to GAP protection. GAP waivers provide protection for consumers when a “gap” exists between the actual value of their vehicle and the amount of money owed to the bank or leasing company. In many instances, this insurance will also pay the deductible on the primary insurance policy. These policies are often offered at the auto dealership as a comparatively low cost add on that can be put into the car loan which provides coverage for the duration of the loan.

GAP insurance is needed if you expect to owe more on the car loan than the car is worth (referred to as being “upside down”). This can occur if you are not able to afford a large down payment and you buy a car that depreciates rapidly, if you are paying a high interest rate, and/or if you are rolling some other expenses into the car loan, like money owed on a trade-in. GAP insurance is also common when leasing a vehicle as leasers are still responsible for the car if it is totaled or stolen just as if they had purchased it. [18]

Consumers should be aware that a few states, including New York, require lenders of leased cars to include GAP insurance within the cost of the lease itself. This means that the monthly price quoted by the dealer must include GAP insurance, whether it is delineated or not. Nevertheless, unscrupulous dealers sometimes prey on unsuspecting individuals by offering them GAP insurance at an additional price, on top of the monthly payment, without mentioning the State’s requirements.

In addition, some vendors and insurance companies offer what is called “Total Loss Coverage.” This is similar to ordinary GAP insurance but differs in that instead of paying off the negative equity on a vehicle that is a total loss, the policy provides a certain amount, usually up to $5000, toward the purchase or lease of a new vehicle. Thus, to some extent the distinction makes no difference, i.e., in either case the owner receives a certain sum of money. However, in choosing which type of policy to purchase, the owner should consider whether, in case of a total loss, it is more advantageous for him or her to have the policy pay off the negative equity or provide a down payment on a new vehicle.

For example, assuming a total loss of a vehicle valued at $15,000, but on which the owner owes $20,000, is the “gap” of $5000. If the owner has traditional GAP coverage, the “gap” will be wiped out and he or she may purchase or lease another vehicle or choose not to. If the owner has “Total Loss Coverage,” he or she will have to personally cover the “gap” of $5000, and then receive $5000 toward the purchase or lease of a new vehicle, thereby either reducing monthly payments, in the case of financing or leasing, or the total purchase price in the case of outright purchasing. So the decision on which type of policy to purchase will, in most instances, be informed by whether the owner can pay off the negative equity in case of a total loss and/or whether he or she will definitively purchase a replacement vehicle.

 Towing
Car towing coverage is also known as Roadside Assistance coverage. Traditionally, automobile insurance companies have agreed to only pay for the cost of a tow that is related to an accident that is covered under the automobile policy of insurance. This had left a gap in coverage for tows that are related to mechanical breakdowns, flat tires and gas outages. To fill that void, insurance companies started to offer the car towing coverage, which pays for non-accident related tows.

 Personal Property
Personal items in a vehicle that are damaged due to an accident would not be a covered under the auto policy. Any type of property that is not attached to the vehicle should be claimed under a homeowners or renters policy.

 Behavior based insurance
The use of non-intrusive load monitoring to detect drunk driving and other risky behaviors has been proposed. [19] A US patent application combining this technology with a usage based insurance product to create a new type of behavior based auto insurance product is currently open for public comment on peer to patent.[20]

 See also
Alcohol exclusion laws
Breakdown
Extended coverage
Family purpose doctrine
 Insurance Information and Enforcement System
No fault insurance
Omnibus clause
Public auto insurance
 External links
How Car Insurance Works at HowStuffWorks
 Notes
^ Jackson JSH, Blackman R (1994). A driving-simulator test of Wilde’s risk homeostasis theory. Journal of Applied Psychology.
^ a b Insurance Bureau of Canada
^ Third-party vehicle insurance in Hungary
^ “Poli?ele RCA se scumpesc în 2009 cu 10 pân? la 30%” (in Romanian). Realitatea. March 6, 2009. http://www.realitatea.net/politele-rca-se-scumpesc-in-2009-cu-10-pana-la-30-la-suta_429721.html. Retrieved June 11, 2009.
^ “Petrol Structure”. Department of Minerals and Energy, South Africa. http://www.dme.gov.za/energy/petrol_structure.htm. Retrieved 2006-05-11.
^ “Virginia Insurance Requirements”. Virginia Department of Motor Vehicles. http://www.dmv.virginia.gov/webdoc/commercial/insurance/frrequire.asp. Retrieved 2007-11-15.
^ Semmens, John. “Improving Road Safety by Privatizing Vehicle and Driver Testing and Licensing”. Street Smart: Competition, Entrepreneurship and the Future of Roads.
^ McClenahan, Charles. “Ratemaking” (PDF). Casualty Actuarial Society. http://www.casact.org/admissions/syllabus/ch3.pdf. Retrieved 2006-05-11.
^ “What determines the price of my policy?”. Insurance Information Institute. http://www.iii.org/individuals/auto/b/whatdetermines/. Retrieved 2006-05-11.
^ “Women drivers’ insurance threat”. BBC. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/3676476.stm. Retrieved 2006-09-05.
^ “Cents Per Mile Now”. http://www.centspermilenow.org/. Retrieved 2006-05-11.
^ “Progressive’s “pay-as-you-drive” auto insurance poised for wide rollout”. insure.com. http://info.insure.com/auto/progressive700.html. Retrieved 2006-05-11.
^ “Insurance program rewards drivers who drive less and slower”. Aftermarket Business. http://www.aftermarketbusiness.com/aftermarketbusiness/article/articleDetail.jsp?id=124842. Retrieved 2006-05-11.
^ Wisconsin Department of Transportation (2008-02-29). “Chapter 344: Vehicles — Financial Responsibility” (PDF). Wisconsin Statutes Database. http://www.legis.state.wi.us/statutes/Stat0344.pdf. Retrieved 2008-04-04.
^ “Auto Rental Collision Damage Waiver Program Personal”. Visa USA. http://usa.visa.com/personal/cards/benefits/bft_dmg_waiver_personal.html. Retrieved 2006-05-11.
^ “Buying or Leasing a Car: What you should know”. State of New York Banking Department. http://www.banking.state.ny.us/brblc.htm. Retrieved 2007-01-17.
^ “GAP Insurance”. Washington State Office of the Insurance Commissioner. http://www.insurance.wa.gov/factsheets/factsheet_detail.asp?FctShtRcdNum=25. Retrieved 2007-01-16.
^ “GAP Insurance: What Is Gap Insurance And Why Do You Need It?”. AutoInsuranceTips.com. http://www.autoinsurancetips.com/gap-insurance-what-gap-insurance-why-do-you-need. Retrieved 2009-07-27.
^ Harold Davis “’Black Box’ idea travels to cars”, The News-Times, 5/22/09
^ US patent application 20090063201 “SoberTeen driving insurance”

Wherever you live, and whatever the weather conditions in your area, your garden will have its own special climate – its microclimate – brought about by a number of factors working together. The factors include the orientation of your site, its protection from wind, whether it slopes or not, and the amount of sun and shade it receives each day. So as well as average conditions for your area, it is important to consider your site’s microclimate in its landscape design.

Any structures that you place on your site have an immediate effect on its microclimate. For example, a house creates a windbreak and alters the flow of air around and above it. There will be a warm area and a colder one created on either side of the building; and shade at certain times of the day. Walls and fences similarly have an effect on a site, as do natural features like trees and hedges.

Locally, the temperature changes according to the composition of the ground surface. Some surfaces, for example, bitumen, get so hot that you cannot walk on them in summer and this heat is felt in the air above. By contrast, concrete surfaces stay relatively cool. Grass is always cool, although the temperature of the soil beneath is influenced by the length of the grass above it. You can use such temperature changes to help you grow warmth-loving plants – for example, semi-tropical plants grow well in front of a brick wall, or you can espalier fruit trees against a wall facing the sun if you live in a cool area. Surfaces that heat up during the day will release the heat slowly throughout the night. This effect can be used to mitigate frost damage in susceptible areas.

To reduce exposure to wind in any garden, some sort of barrier is usually needed. It has been shown that solid barriers like wooden fences create areas of turbulence on each side, so the best sort of barriers are those that are semi-permeable – only half solid. Such a barrier will act as a filter. Wind is slowed and areas of turbulence are not created. You can use lightly-foliaged trees, an open boarded fence or a brick fence with spaces between the bricks to provide an effective wind barrier.

Water has varying effects on microclimate. It stabilises the temperature of the air to a greater or lesser extent depending on the size of the pond. A pond reflects light from its surface, so plants surrounding a pond tend to get both more water and more light than those planted elsewhere. However, while a pond has a cooling effect on a hot summer’s day, it can have a positively chilling effect in winter, so you have to remember this when deciding where to place a pond in your garden.

Both people and plants benefit when you think carefully about your site’s microclimate and plan accordingly.
Article from Landscaping Videos.com which offers landscape design ideas, garden design plans, pictures, and videos. For more design plans and ideas, visit www.landscapingvideos.com.

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Lush green lawns are simply gorgeous-but it can take plenty of work to achieve that stunning emerald look. Watering your lawn correctly is absolutely vital to keeping your lawn healthy and green in any climate. Proper watering of your lawn can even help preserve water, as you’ll be using it more efficiently, with less waste.

When and How to Water

You don’t necessarily need to start watering your lawn as soon as the first few warm summer days appear. You’ll actually achieve a healthier lawn, with a more extensive and deep root system, if you hold off watering until your lawn begins to enter a mild state of drought. When your lawn begins to enter this state, the grass will turn a darker shade of green, and footprints made when you walk across the lawn will remain imprinted, instead of the blades quickly bouncing back up.

If you’re able to, watering your lawn early in the day is best. Midday watering is inefficient and may be detrimental to your lawn, as moisture will evaporate quickly at this time. Watering in the evening can help cultivate lawn diseases, as the grass will remain damp for longer periods. However, if you live in a very hot climate, watering during the evening is preferable, as less moisture will be lost due to evaporation, and temperatures will not be cold enough to prevent grass blades drying completely overnight.

One of thee most important points in watering your lawn is ensuring that you maintain an even distribution of water over the entire lawn, and that no spot is either missed or flooded with excess water.

The best way to achieve this objective is with a sprinkler system, rather than with a hose. To ensure your system is providing even coverage over your lawn, place some empty cans or other straight-sided containers at various spots over the lawn, and then check how much water each contains after a watering session.

How Much Water?

Thorough, less frequent watering is much more efficient-and healthy for your lawn-than frequent, light watering. A good, heavy watering that penetrates deep into the soil helps to promote a healthy root system, and also discourages the growth of weeds.

In normal conditions, grasses need between three quarters of an inch and one full inch of water per week to maintain that rich green color, and to keep the lawn healthy and actively growing, as well as attractive. In very hot climates, more frequent watering may be needed. Check your lawn for blade ‘bounce’ to ensure your lawn receives enough water.

Remember that this requirement includes both precipitation (rain) and watering. If you receive an inch of rainfall in any given week, you can hold off watering until it’s needed. In addition, it’s important to realize that this one inch isn’t an absolute requirement-your lawn won’t sicken and die if it doesn’t get an inch every week, but too much water in a short time can be harmful. If, for example, you know rain is expected very soon, you can safely hold off watering until after the rain arrives.

How Long?

Each watering of your lawn should provide plenty of water for the active root zone of the grass. The length of time this takes depends on the type of watering system you use, and the type of soil you have. In general, most types of grass need to be soaked to a depth of eight to twelve inches. Some grasses, such as bluegrass, need to be soaked to a depth of six to eight inches.

To calculate how long you’ll need to run your sprinkler system to achieve the right depth, do the following:

1. Run your sprinkler system for fifteen minutes.

2. After 24 hours, drive a screwdriver or other implement into the earth to check how deep the water penetrated. You’ll be able to drive the implement easily through moist soil, but once you hit dry soil it will become difficult.

3. Divide 120 by the depth of moist soil you determined in step 2. If the water soaked in to a depth of three inches, for example, you’ll end up with a figure of 40 minutes. That means it will take two hours for the lawn to be soaked to a depth of nine inches, and two hours and forty minutes to get soaked to a depth of twelve inches.

Water Conservation Tips
If you live in a climate that routinely achieves very high temperatures during the summer, consider letting your lawn go dormant as an alternative to watering.
Purchase a rain gauge so that you can determine how much rain your lawn receives, and avoid over-watering.
Aerate your lawn to allow the grass to use water more efficiently.

About Author:
Grant Eckert is a freelance writer who writes about topics pertaining to home maintenance such as http://www.trugreen.com/ Lawn Care

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The best thing that you can do for yourself if to find out, first of all, what size bridge you want. This will depend on the budget you have and the size of garden you have. Most of all the type of bridge you get depends on theme you will have in your back or front yard. Will you have a pond under it? Will you have running water under it with fish swimming in? Will it be in the sun for long times, so you will have to know if you will be installing a cover in the yard the bridge will be going. There are many different types of garden bridges that you could choose from, there are wood bridges, wooden footbridges, landscaping bridges, pond bridges, foot bridges, wooden garden bridges, Japanese garden bridges, Japanese bridges, red wood garden bridges, curved rail bridges, short post bridges and so much more that you can choose from. If you are looking for a garden bridge it is very easy to get confused as to what you want to choose.

When you are looking to install a redwood bridge in your garden there are many things that you will have to take into account, like the weather for instance. Does it rain in your area a lot? Does the sun shine a lot? Will it be damp most of the time because you have a water feature in your back yard or even a running stream pond? Will you have a cover? This all answers how our wood will be treated. So before you make that first step to buying your garden foot bridge, you will have to do a lot of thinking

There is something about having a great garden. These days you will find that many gardens in the country keep getting smaller and smaller. The newer the house the smaller the garden, it is a fact in the real estate industry. If you want a big garden when you by a house it is most important that you by a house built years ago. There are many reasons for a person to have a big garden and there are many reason for a person to want a big garden. It is all good for all of us to want a big garden, but it depends on where your house is situated and what you paid for the house when you bought it. If you where one of the unlucky ones and bought a house with a small garden then there is really nothing you can do to make it bigger, unless you want to buy the plot next to yours and break down the wall separating the two plots, or if you want to make your house smaller so you can have a bigger garden. The choice is yours, though it is advised that you look for a house with a big garden to begin with, this way you will be able to fit your garden bridge right where you would like it. @www.redwoodgardenbridges.com

About the Author:

HandCrafted Garden Bridges Redwood Bridges and Landscaping Wooden Garden Bridges are Great For Koi Ponds. These are Custom built for your pond, Creek, or Yard with top Quality and workmanship. All sizes built just for your needs.

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As a landscape contractor in a small town that sees quite a bit of it, I was under the impression that the rotten contractor syndrome was isolated to small towns or at least my area. However, the more I read and listen to people, it’s quite evident that it is a nation wide problem.

So what is the rotten contractor syndrome? First, it’s not just limited to the landscaping trade. It’s in all construction trades. From contractors who don’t return initial calls, to juggling your job with several others, never actually finishing the job, using cheap materials, and not taking care of warranty work. And I believe that most everybody who has dealt with a contractor at one time or another has dealt with it on one level or another.

While most landscaping companies start their businesses with the best intentions, many fall into this pattern that continues throughout the rest of their careers or at least until they’re run out of business. How some survive as long as they do, I’ll never understand.

So how do you find a reputable contractor and how can you avoid the rotten ones? First, let me tell you what you don’t do.

It’s not a good idea to completely trust the word of any single source and especially the companies who provide a list of pre-screened and pre-qualified contractors. While they want you to believe they’ve checked everyone out with a fine tooth comb, they haven’t. And I know this first hand on several occasions.

On several occasions I have been contacted by phone by the top players in the contractor screening and broker field. They always have an overflow of clients and not enough companies to take the jobs. And without knowing anything about me or my company, they have all offered me leads if I would simple pay them for them. No screening, no qualification, no questions asked. Fortunately, my little company has a waiting list backed for a good six months so we never have to “buy” a single client. However, the point is, if you simply trust their word, you could still end up burned.

O.K., so how do you find a good reputable contractor? While you may trust the brokers for initial leads and contacts, the rest is up to you. In my opinion, the brokers are only as good as the yellow pages and your local chamber of commerce. Regardless how you make contact, you have to do a little homework and protect you yourself.

Ask for references, a list of finished projects and pay attention to details and quality of the projects, check the BBB, check with your chamber of commerce, talk to their clients, talk to county agents, knock on a few doors, and most of all, trust your gut feeling when you meet the represenative of the company. While even all of this still isn’t a guarantee, it will put you a lot closer to quality than only taking one sources word for it.

The rotten landscaping contractor syndrome is a big problem in most cities and towns. It’s a shame but I do make a great living fixing all the landscaping messes they leave behind. So while it’s a good thing for me, it’s not such a good thing for you. Always do your homework and make your own choices. Don’t let someone else do it for you.
For more free landscaping plans, design pictures, ideas, and a free landscaping companies and designers directory, visit www.the-landscape-design-site.com.

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Throughout the spring and summer, we are treated to the melodious songs and chattering conversations of a variety of birds in our trees and shrubs. As summer turns to autumn, then autumn to winter, the songs die down and the conversations are less frequent. Is there a way to keep the birds around during the winter too? You bet! Every region is blessed with a variety of non-migratory birds. With just the right tasty treats, you can draw these non-migratory birds to your yard. Food, water and protection are the three things you need to provide for your feathered friends.

When you consider feeders, have mercy on the little birds who will visit your yard. Be sure to supply tube feeders for them, designed in such a way to keep out larger birds. Thistle feeders are a favorite of finches. Thistle ocks Shepherd hooks make great thistle feeders and come in various sizes. Green feeders with weighted trap doors will keep out squirrels and crows.

When selecting food, you have a number of choices. For small birds, millet is definitely the seed of choice. Wild bird seed combinations will ring the dinner bell for a large variety of wintering feathered friends. Look for a combination that includes black sunflower seeds, as well as nuts and dried fruits. Making a combination like this available will bring in such birds as cardinals, catbirds, finches, chickadees and nuthatches.

In addition to the seed combinations mentioned above, try these ideas: spread peanut butter on pinecones. You can mix in a little bacon fat with the peanut butter and then roll the pinecone in bread or cereal crumbs. Also, string popcorn, cranberries and dried fruit and hang from a tree. Beware the squirrels will not be denied the opportunity to visit this smorgasbord!

NOTE – Before you begin feeding birds during the winter, decide up front you will do this consistently. Your feathered friends will come to rely on you for regular nourishment during the winter and may go hungry if the cafeteria suddenly closes up shop.

Water is another important concern in winter. Check with your lawn & garden center for an immersible heater. Place this in the bottom of a birdbath and it will keep the water from freezing. In addition to birdbaths, various other shallow containers can be used to offer fresh water to birds saucers, inverted trashcan lids and pie tins. Be sure to monitor the depth of the water because birds do like water that is more than two or three inches deep.

Consider also birds need shelter in the winter. Incorporate in your garden a double blessing for them by planting plants that offer food and shelter. Popular choices include pyracantha, juniper and holly, as well as Japanese barberry. Do keep in mind; the Japanese barberry is considered an invasive exotic plant, so use it with care
Article from The Landscape Design Site. For more information about garden design, landscaping, xeriscaping ideas, and small gardens, visit www.the-landscape-design-site.com.

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The bonuses provided by online casino sites like the sign up bonus, the match up bonus, the loyalty bonus, VIP bonus, and percentage bonuses which are as high as 1000% in some sites are really amazing. It keeps one wondering on how they will be able to make so much in payoffs.

The primary factor that aids online businesses to pay better is because they are starting off with a comparatively lesser start up cost. The overhead cost for running the online casino is also comparatively less than the regular brick and motor casinos.

The website would be starting up with a hosting space, a domain name, and of late there are several gaming companies which provide with the gaming software with a multi-user license, so they are also economizing on massive programming costs for the casino. The integration of the payment gateways to get the money and pay off the money is another added expenditure. Then is the expenditure involving verification signs from several gambling authorities. And, of course there is also going to be some cost involved in marketing. All of these together will cost much, much less when compared to brick and motor casinos.

In regular land based casinos, they have got to have a good looking building structure, then dealers, croupiers, waiters, securities, bar tenders, floor managers and lot of related costs. Apart from this they got to pay taxes to the local government. They have to abide by local laws. They have to pay for the electricity. Renew the wheels and tables and chairs in a way to keep up with competition from neighboring casinos and lot more.

Both of them do have expenditure, but the online casino business is much, much less. Also, the interesting thing is that though the online casino has less of an initial investment, their traffic base is really massive. They tend to attract a global audience. The reverse is true with land based casinos where gamblers are mostly from the local region, tourists and other enthusiastic gamblers who have got to spend more than what they gamble with in land based set ups.

When gamblers compare the winnings, they are ideally better in online casinos. Except for free food and drinks they get everything at par in online casinos. Therefore many are choosing to play in online casinos.

There is something called wagering requirements to cash out the bonus, most of them try to get it but a majority of them miss on wagering norms. Where does all the money the casino does make from saving the unpaid bonus due to unfulfilled wagering requirements go? Well, this along with the other income to the site will be used to make the massive payoffs that land based casinos cannot pay.

There are players who play for just $1 to many thousand dollars in a day. Little drops of money which people don’t mind losing to kill time, are revenue to the casino. They are getting richer! So, they do not mind paying you the extra odds to get more business and more profits.

Brian Hoff writes an at http://www.trust-online-casino.com review. He also teaches people at http://www.trust-online-casino.com/How-to-play.html online and in casinos.

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The Fertigator Pro is a fertigation device by Fertigator. Let’s first discuss the idea behind fertigation. Normally, fertilization is done in an artificial and rather dangerous manner. Monthly fertilization results overfeeding as your plants will soak up and use the nutrients in just the first few days after the first monthly treatment. This will overload the soil with chemical release. Usually, landscapers will wait a few weeks before returning with another chemical release, meaning that plants are now subjected to starvation. After the second release, comes another low nutrient period. This peak and valley style irrigation can be stressful to plant life, which will result in poor quality greenery.

The facts show that fertigation is the ideal process, and this is what Fertigator Pro does. Fertigation supplies grass and other plants with small amounts of fertilizer on a regular basis. This improves the quality of surroundings and keeps nutrients flowing. Plants survive by nitrogen and must have it and other nutrients quickly. Pouring down excessive nutrients and then leaving the garden or lawn for weeks at a time is not healthy. Fertigation keeps the nutrients readily available and this in turn causes stronger root growth and better overall health. (Along with other positive benefits we’ll discuss later) This is what Fertigator Pro does, and it’s far less expensive than a slow-release fertilizer.

Fertigator Pro is the upgraded version of the basic Fertigator Mojo Feeder. This system can cover larger areas and more complex operation. This system uses automatic fertilizer injection systems and can attach to practically any in-ground sprinkler system. The “automatic” term comes from the fact that you feed your lawn every time you run the sprinkler. The system was designed with the DIYer in mind, not professional contractors. Therefore, the system is easy to use and to install. While it’s not a “breeze” like the Fertigator Mojo Feeder, it is neither complicated to learn.

Let’s start with the three basic components of Fertigator Pro. First, there’s the controller, then the injector, and then the mounting tee. The Controller device is the brain operation of the system and this part is wired into the sprinkler system controller. It is usually mounted right next to the system. Now, whenever a sprinkler zone activates, the FertiGator reads the signal and then causes the injector to pulse. This results in fertilizer being sent out into that zone.

This system of Fertigator Pro fertigation is the best and most cost-effective way to deliver nutrients to your lawn or garden in a timely manner. It is a far superior system to traditional granular fertilizer, which is usually infrequently administered, and which creates an over-dosage of nitrogen. This overfeeding will cause an unhealthy surge of top growth, but also result in weakened roots. The lawn or garden will eventually slow in overall growth and start to become malnourished during the starvation period. That’s what you call feast or famine! Fertigator Pro is the best way to protect plant life, accelerate growth and keep everything natural.

About the Author:

Richard Gilliland is VP of GreenMarkIrrigation.com a online wholesale distributor of Sprinklers and fertigator fertigation fertilizer systems.

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